candle/candle-core/src/cpu_backend.rs

use crate::backend::{BackendDevice, BackendStorage};
use crate::op::{BinaryOpT, CmpOp, ReduceOp, UnaryOpT};
use crate::{DType, Error, Layout, Result, Shape, WithDType};
use half::{bf16, f16};

// TODO: Maybe we should not implement [Clone] here and instead have an explicit allocator +
// intercept the oom errors to avoid panicking and provide a proper error.
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub enum CpuStorage {
    U8(Vec<u8>),
    U32(Vec<u32>),
    BF16(Vec<bf16>),
    F16(Vec<f16>),
    F32(Vec<f32>),
    F64(Vec<f64>),
}

#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct CpuDevice;

pub trait Map1 {
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, vs: &[T], layout: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>>;

    fn map(&self, vs: &CpuStorage, layout: &Layout) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        match vs {
            CpuStorage::U8(vs) => Ok(CpuStorage::U8(self.f(vs, layout)?)),
            CpuStorage::U32(vs) => Ok(CpuStorage::U32(self.f(vs, layout)?)),
            CpuStorage::BF16(vs) => Ok(CpuStorage::BF16(self.f(vs, layout)?)),
            CpuStorage::F16(vs) => Ok(CpuStorage::F16(self.f(vs, layout)?)),
            CpuStorage::F32(vs) => Ok(CpuStorage::F32(self.f(vs, layout)?)),
            CpuStorage::F64(vs) => Ok(CpuStorage::F64(self.f(vs, layout)?)),
        }
    }
}

pub trait Map1Any {
    fn f<T: WithDType, W: Fn(Vec<T>) -> CpuStorage>(
        &self,
        vs: &[T],
        layout: &Layout,
        wrap: W,
    ) -> Result<CpuStorage>;

    fn map(&self, vs: &CpuStorage, layout: &Layout) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        match vs {
            CpuStorage::U8(vs) => Ok(self.f(vs, layout, CpuStorage::U8)?),
            CpuStorage::U32(vs) => Ok(self.f(vs, layout, CpuStorage::U32)?),
            CpuStorage::BF16(vs) => Ok(self.f(vs, layout, CpuStorage::BF16)?),
            CpuStorage::F16(vs) => Ok(self.f(vs, layout, CpuStorage::F16)?),
            CpuStorage::F32(vs) => Ok(self.f(vs, layout, CpuStorage::F32)?),
            CpuStorage::F64(vs) => Ok(self.f(vs, layout, CpuStorage::F64)?),
        }
    }
}

type C = CpuStorage;
pub trait Map2 {
    const OP: &'static str;
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, v1: &[T], l1: &Layout, v2: &[T], l2: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>>;

    fn map(
        &self,
        v1: &CpuStorage,
        l1: &Layout,
        v2: &CpuStorage,
        l2: &Layout,
    ) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        match (v1, v2) {
            (C::U8(v1), C::U8(v2)) => Ok(C::U8(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::U32(v1), C::U32(v2)) => Ok(C::U32(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::BF16(v1), C::BF16(v2)) => Ok(C::BF16(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::F16(v1), C::F16(v2)) => Ok(C::F16(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::F32(v1), C::F32(v2)) => Ok(C::F32(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::F64(v1), C::F64(v2)) => Ok(C::F64(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            _ => Err(Error::DTypeMismatchBinaryOp {
                lhs: v1.dtype(),
                rhs: v2.dtype(),
                op: Self::OP,
            }
            .bt()),
        }
    }
}

pub trait Map2U8 {
    const OP: &'static str;
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, v1: &[T], l1: &Layout, v2: &[T], l2: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<u8>>;

    fn map(
        &self,
        v1: &CpuStorage,
        l1: &Layout,
        v2: &CpuStorage,
        l2: &Layout,
    ) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        match (v1, v2) {
            (C::U8(v1), C::U8(v2)) => Ok(C::U8(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::U32(v1), C::U32(v2)) => Ok(C::U8(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::BF16(v1), C::BF16(v2)) => Ok(C::U8(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::F16(v1), C::F16(v2)) => Ok(C::U8(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::F32(v1), C::F32(v2)) => Ok(C::U8(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            (C::F64(v1), C::F64(v2)) => Ok(C::U8(self.f(v1, l1, v2, l2)?)),
            _ => Err(Error::DTypeMismatchBinaryOp {
                lhs: v1.dtype(),
                rhs: v2.dtype(),
                op: Self::OP,
            }
            .bt()),
        }
    }
}

struct Cmp(CmpOp);
impl Map2U8 for Cmp {
    const OP: &'static str = "cmp";
    #[inline(always)]
    fn f<T: WithDType>(
        &self,
        lhs: &[T],
        lhs_l: &Layout,
        rhs: &[T],
        rhs_l: &Layout,
    ) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
        let dst = match self.0 {
            CmpOp::Eq => binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, |x, y| u8::from(x == y)),
            CmpOp::Ne => binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, |x, y| u8::from(x != y)),
            CmpOp::Lt => binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, |x, y| u8::from(x < y)),
            CmpOp::Le => binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, |x, y| u8::from(x <= y)),
            CmpOp::Gt => binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, |x, y| u8::from(x > y)),
            CmpOp::Ge => binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, |x, y| u8::from(x >= y)),
        };
        Ok(dst)
    }
}

struct WCond<'a>(&'a [u32], &'a Layout);

impl<'a> Map2 for WCond<'a> {
    const OP: &'static str = "where";
    #[inline(always)]
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, t: &[T], t_l: &Layout, f: &[T], f_l: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        let vs = match (
            self.1.contiguous_offsets(),
            t_l.contiguous_offsets(),
            f_l.contiguous_offsets(),
        ) {
            (Some((o1, o2)), Some((o_t1, o_t2)), Some((o_f1, o_f2))) => {
                let pred = &self.0[o1..o2];
                let t = &t[o_t1..o_t2];
                let f = &f[o_f1..o_f2];
                pred.iter()
                    .zip(t.iter().zip(f.iter()))
                    .map(|(&p, (&t, &f))| if p > 0 { t } else { f })
                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
            }
            _ => self
                .1
                .strided_index()
                .zip(t_l.strided_index().zip(f_l.strided_index()))
                .map(|(i_p, (i_t, i_f))| if self.0[i_p] > 0 { t[i_t] } else { f[i_f] })
                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
        };
        Ok(vs)
    }
}

struct ReduceIndex {
    reduce_dim_index: usize,
    use_min: bool,
    return_index: bool,
}

impl ReduceIndex {
    // The value gets replaced if f(s[current_acc], s[i]) returns true.
    #[inline(always)]
    fn fold_impl<T, U, F, G>(&self, src: &[T], src_l: &Layout, f: F, g: G) -> Result<Vec<U>>
    where
        T: Clone + Copy,
        U: Clone + Copy,
        F: Fn(T, T) -> bool,
        G: Fn(T, usize) -> U,
    {
        let reduce_dim_size = src_l.dims()[self.reduce_dim_index];
        let reduce_dim_stride = src_l.stride()[self.reduce_dim_index];
        let dst_len = src_l.shape().elem_count() / reduce_dim_size;
        let mut dst: Vec<U> = Vec::with_capacity(dst_len);
        let dst_to_set = dst.spare_capacity_mut();
        let dst_to_set = unsafe { std::mem::transmute::<_, &mut [U]>(dst_to_set) };
        match src_l.contiguous_offsets() {
            Some((o1, o2)) => {
                let src = &src[o1..o2];
                if reduce_dim_stride == 1 {
                    for (start_src_i, dst_v) in dst_to_set.iter_mut().enumerate() {
                        let start_src_i = start_src_i * reduce_dim_size;
                        let src = &src[start_src_i..start_src_i + reduce_dim_size];
                        let mut acc = 0;
                        let mut val = src[0];
                        for (src_i, &s) in src.iter().enumerate() {
                            if f(val, s) {
                                acc = src_i;
                                val = s
                            }
                        }
                        *dst_v = g(val, acc)
                    }
                } else {
                    for (start_src_i, dst_v) in dst_to_set.iter_mut().enumerate() {
                        let (p, q) = (
                            start_src_i / reduce_dim_stride,
                            start_src_i % reduce_dim_stride,
                        );
                        // start_src_i = p * reduce_dim_stride + q
                        let start_src_i = p * reduce_dim_stride * reduce_dim_size + q;
                        let src = &src[start_src_i..];
                        let mut acc = 0;
                        let mut val = src[0];
                        for src_i in 0..reduce_dim_size {
                            let s = src[src_i * reduce_dim_stride];
                            if f(val, s) {
                                acc = src_i;
                                val = s
                            }
                        }
                        *dst_v = g(val, acc)
                    }
                }
            }
            None => {
                let l = src_l.narrow(self.reduce_dim_index, 0, 1)?;
                for (unstr_index, src_index) in l.strided_index().enumerate() {
                    let src = &src[src_index..];
                    let mut acc = 0;
                    let mut val = src[0];
                    for src_i in 0..reduce_dim_size {
                        let s = src[src_i * reduce_dim_stride];
                        if f(val, s) {
                            acc = src_i;
                            val = s
                        }
                    }
                    dst[unstr_index] = g(val, acc)
                }
            }
        }
        unsafe { dst.set_len(dst_len) };
        Ok(dst)
    }
}

impl Map1Any for ReduceIndex {
    #[inline(always)]
    fn f<T: WithDType, W: Fn(Vec<T>) -> CpuStorage>(
        &self,
        src: &[T],
        src_l: &Layout,
        wrap: W,
    ) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        if src_l.shape().elem_count() == 0 {
            Err(Error::EmptyTensor { op: "reduce" }.bt())?
        }
        let dst = match (self.return_index, self.use_min) {
            (false, true) => wrap(self.fold_impl(src, src_l, |x, y| x > y, |v, _i| v)?),
            (false, false) => wrap(self.fold_impl(src, src_l, |x, y| x < y, |v, _i| v)?),
            (true, true) => {
                CpuStorage::U32(self.fold_impl(src, src_l, |x, y| x > y, |_v, i| i as u32)?)
            }
            (true, false) => {
                CpuStorage::U32(self.fold_impl(src, src_l, |x, y| x < y, |_v, i| i as u32)?)
            }
        };
        Ok(dst)
    }
}

struct Reduce<'a> {
    dst_shape: &'a Shape,
    reduce_dims: &'a [usize],
    reduce_dims_and_stride: Vec<(usize, usize)>,
}

impl<'a> Reduce<'a> {
    #[inline(always)]
    fn fold_impl<T, F>(&self, src: &[T], src_l: &Layout, start_elt: T, f: F) -> Result<Vec<T>>
    where
        T: Clone + Copy,
        F: Fn(T, T) -> T,
    {
        let mut dst = vec![start_elt; self.dst_shape.elem_count()];
        match src_l.contiguous_offsets() {
            Some((o1, o2)) => {
                let src = &src[o1..o2];
                // Handle the case where we reduce over the last dimensions separately as it is
                // fairly common and easy to optimize. This rely on the layout being contiguous!
                // reduce_dims is sorted, check if it is ranging from a to n-1.
                let reduce_over_last_dims = self
                    .reduce_dims
                    .iter()
                    .rev()
                    .enumerate()
                    .all(|(i, &v)| v == src_l.shape().rank() - 1 - i);
                if reduce_over_last_dims {
                    let reduce_sz = self
                        .reduce_dims_and_stride
                        .iter()
                        .map(|(u, _)| u)
                        .product::<usize>();
                    let mut src_i = 0;
                    for dst_v in dst.iter_mut() {
                        for &s in src[src_i..src_i + reduce_sz].iter() {
                            *dst_v = f(*dst_v, s)
                        }
                        src_i += reduce_sz
                    }
                    return Ok(dst);
                };
                for (unstr_index, &src) in src.iter().enumerate() {
                    let mut dst_index = unstr_index;
                    // Set the reduce_dims indexes to 0.
                    for &(dim, stride) in self.reduce_dims_and_stride.iter() {
                        // The compiler is able to optimize the following in a single divmod op.
                        let (pre, post) = (dst_index / stride, dst_index % stride);
                        dst_index = (pre / dim) * stride + post;
                    }
                    dst[dst_index] = f(dst[dst_index], src);
                }
            }
            None => {
                for (unstr_index, src_index) in src_l.strided_index().enumerate() {
                    let mut dst_index = unstr_index;
                    // Set the reduce_dims indexes to 0.
                    for &(dim, stride) in self.reduce_dims_and_stride.iter() {
                        // The compiler is able to optimize the following in a single divmod op.
                        let (pre, post) = (dst_index / stride, dst_index % stride);
                        dst_index = (pre / dim) * stride + post;
                    }
                    dst[dst_index] = f(dst[dst_index], src[src_index]);
                }
            }
        }
        Ok(dst)
    }
}

impl<'a> Map1 for Reduce<'a> {
    #[inline(always)]
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, src: &[T], src_l: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        self.fold_impl(src, src_l, T::zero(), |x, y| x + y)
    }
}

pub fn unary_map<T: Copy, U: Copy, F: FnMut(T) -> U>(
    vs: &[T],
    layout: &Layout,
    mut f: F,
) -> Vec<U> {
    match layout.strided_blocks() {
        crate::StridedBlocks::SingleBlock { start_offset, len } => vs
            [start_offset..start_offset + len]
            .iter()
            .map(|&v| f(v))
            .collect(),
        crate::StridedBlocks::MultipleBlocks {
            block_start_index,
            block_len,
        } => {
            let mut result = vec![];
            result.reserve(layout.shape().elem_count());
            // Specialize the case where block_len is one to avoid the second loop.
            if block_len == 1 {
                for index in block_start_index {
                    let v = unsafe { vs.get_unchecked(index) };
                    result.push(f(*v))
                }
            } else {
                for index in block_start_index {
                    for offset in 0..block_len {
                        let v = unsafe { vs.get_unchecked(index + offset) };
                        result.push(f(*v))
                    }
                }
            }
            result
        }
    }
}

pub fn unary_map_vec<T: Copy, U: Copy, F: FnMut(T) -> U, FV: FnMut(&[T], &mut [U])>(
    vs: &[T],
    layout: &Layout,
    mut f: F,
    mut f_vec: FV,
) -> Vec<U> {
    match layout.strided_blocks() {
        crate::StridedBlocks::SingleBlock { start_offset, len } => {
            let mut ys: Vec<U> = Vec::with_capacity(len);
            let ys_to_set = ys.spare_capacity_mut();
            let ys_to_set = unsafe { std::mem::transmute::<_, &mut [U]>(ys_to_set) };
            f_vec(&vs[start_offset..start_offset + len], ys_to_set);
            // SAFETY: values are all set by f_vec.
            unsafe { ys.set_len(len) };
            ys
        }
        crate::StridedBlocks::MultipleBlocks {
            block_start_index,
            block_len,
        } => {
            let el_count = layout.shape().elem_count();
            // Specialize the case where block_len is one to avoid the second loop.
            if block_len == 1 {
                let mut result = Vec::with_capacity(el_count);
                for index in block_start_index {
                    let v = unsafe { vs.get_unchecked(index) };
                    result.push(f(*v))
                }
                result
            } else {
                let mut ys: Vec<U> = Vec::with_capacity(el_count);
                let ys_to_set = ys.spare_capacity_mut();
                let ys_to_set = unsafe { std::mem::transmute::<_, &mut [U]>(ys_to_set) };
                let mut dst_index = 0;
                for src_index in block_start_index {
                    let vs = &vs[src_index..src_index + block_len];
                    let ys = &mut ys_to_set[dst_index..dst_index + block_len];
                    f_vec(vs, ys);
                    dst_index += block_len;
                }
                // SAFETY: values are all set by f_vec.
                unsafe { ys.set_len(el_count) };
                ys
            }
        }
    }
}

// This function maps over two strided index sequences.
fn binary_map<T: Copy, U: Copy, F: FnMut(T, T) -> U>(
    lhs_l: &Layout,
    rhs_l: &Layout,
    lhs: &[T],
    rhs: &[T],
    mut f: F,
) -> Vec<U> {
    match (lhs_l.contiguous_offsets(), rhs_l.contiguous_offsets()) {
        (Some((o_l1, o_l2)), Some((o_r1, o_r2))) => lhs[o_l1..o_l2]
            .iter()
            .zip(rhs[o_r1..o_r2].iter())
            .map(|(&l, &r)| f(l, r))
            .collect(),
        (Some((o_l1, o_l2)), None) => {
            // TODO: Maybe we want to avoid going through the layout twice.
            match rhs_l.offsets_b() {
                Some(ob) => {
                    let mut i_in_block = 0;
                    let mut i_right_broadcast = 0;
                    lhs[o_l1..o_l2]
                        .iter()
                        .map(|&l| {
                            let r = unsafe { rhs.get_unchecked(i_in_block + ob.start) };
                            i_right_broadcast += 1;
                            if i_right_broadcast >= ob.right_broadcast {
                                i_in_block += 1;
                                i_right_broadcast = 0;
                            }
                            if i_in_block >= ob.len {
                                i_in_block = 0
                            }
                            f(l, *r)
                        })
                        .collect()
                }
                None => lhs_l
                    .strided_index()
                    .zip(rhs_l.strided_index())
                    .map(|(lhs_i, rhs_i)| f(lhs[lhs_i], rhs[rhs_i]))
                    .collect(),
            }
        }
        (None, Some((o_r1, o_r2))) => {
            // TODO: Maybe we want to avoid going through the layout twice.
            match lhs_l.offsets_b() {
                Some(ob) => {
                    let mut i_in_block = 0;
                    let mut i_right_broadcast = 0;
                    rhs[o_r1..o_r2]
                        .iter()
                        .map(|&r| {
                            let l = unsafe { lhs.get_unchecked(i_in_block + ob.start) };
                            i_right_broadcast += 1;
                            if i_right_broadcast >= ob.right_broadcast {
                                i_in_block += 1;
                                i_right_broadcast = 0;
                            }
                            if i_in_block >= ob.len {
                                i_in_block = 0
                            }
                            f(*l, r)
                        })
                        .collect()
                }
                None => lhs_l
                    .strided_index()
                    .zip(rhs_l.strided_index())
                    .map(|(lhs_i, rhs_i)| f(lhs[lhs_i], rhs[rhs_i]))
                    .collect(),
            }
        }
        _ => lhs_l
            .strided_index()
            .zip(rhs_l.strided_index())
            .map(|(lhs_i, rhs_i)| f(lhs[lhs_i], rhs[rhs_i]))
            .collect(),
    }
}

// Similar to binary_map but with vectorized variants.
fn binary_map_vec<T: Copy, F: FnMut(T, T) -> T, FV: FnMut(&[T], &[T], &mut [T])>(
    lhs_l: &Layout,
    rhs_l: &Layout,
    lhs: &[T],
    rhs: &[T],
    mut f: F,
    mut f_vec: FV,
) -> Vec<T> {
    let el_count = lhs_l.shape().elem_count();
    match (lhs_l.contiguous_offsets(), rhs_l.contiguous_offsets()) {
        (Some((o_l1, o_l2)), Some((o_r1, o_r2))) => {
            let mut ys: Vec<T> = Vec::with_capacity(el_count);
            let ys_to_set = ys.spare_capacity_mut();
            let ys_to_set = unsafe { std::mem::transmute::<_, &mut [T]>(ys_to_set) };
            f_vec(&lhs[o_l1..o_l2], &rhs[o_r1..o_r2], ys_to_set);
            // SAFETY: values are all set by f_vec.
            unsafe { ys.set_len(el_count) };
            ys
        }
        (Some((o_l1, o_l2)), None) => match rhs_l.offsets_b() {
            Some(ob) if ob.right_broadcast == 1 => {
                let rhs = &rhs[ob.start..ob.start + ob.len];
                let mut ys: Vec<T> = Vec::with_capacity(el_count);
                let ys_to_set = ys.spare_capacity_mut();
                let ys_to_set = unsafe { std::mem::transmute::<_, &mut [T]>(ys_to_set) };
                let mut dst_i = 0;
                for src_i in (o_l1..o_l2).step_by(ob.len) {
                    f_vec(
                        &lhs[src_i..src_i + ob.len],
                        rhs,
                        &mut ys_to_set[dst_i..dst_i + ob.len],
                    );
                    dst_i += ob.len;
                }
                // SAFETY: values are all set by f_vec.
                unsafe { ys.set_len(el_count) };
                ys
            }
            Some(ob) => {
                let rhs = &rhs[ob.start..ob.start + ob.len];
                let mut ys = lhs[o_l1..o_l2].to_vec();
                for idx_l in 0..ob.left_broadcast {
                    let start = idx_l * ob.len * ob.right_broadcast;
                    for (i, &r) in rhs.iter().enumerate() {
                        let start = start + i * ob.right_broadcast;
                        for v in ys[start..start + ob.right_broadcast].iter_mut() {
                            *v = f(*v, r)
                        }
                    }
                }
                ys
            }
            None => lhs_l
                .strided_index()
                .zip(rhs_l.strided_index())
                .map(|(lhs_i, rhs_i)| f(lhs[lhs_i], rhs[rhs_i]))
                .collect(),
        },
        (None, Some((o_r1, o_r2))) => match lhs_l.offsets_b() {
            Some(ob) if ob.right_broadcast == 1 => {
                let lhs = &lhs[ob.start..ob.start + ob.len];
                let mut ys: Vec<T> = Vec::with_capacity(el_count);
                let ys_to_set = ys.spare_capacity_mut();
                let ys_to_set = unsafe { std::mem::transmute::<_, &mut [T]>(ys_to_set) };
                let mut dst_i = 0;
                for src_i in (o_r1..o_r2).step_by(ob.len) {
                    f_vec(
                        lhs,
                        &rhs[src_i..src_i + ob.len],
                        &mut ys_to_set[dst_i..dst_i + ob.len],
                    );
                    dst_i += ob.len;
                }
                // SAFETY: values are all set by f_vec.
                unsafe { ys.set_len(el_count) };
                ys
            }
            Some(ob) => {
                let lhs = &lhs[ob.start..ob.start + ob.len];
                let mut ys = rhs[o_r1..o_r2].to_vec();
                for idx_l in 0..ob.left_broadcast {
                    let start = idx_l * ob.len * ob.right_broadcast;
                    for (i, &l) in lhs.iter().enumerate() {
                        let start = start + i * ob.right_broadcast;
                        for v in ys[start..start + ob.right_broadcast].iter_mut() {
                            *v = f(l, *v)
                        }
                    }
                }
                ys
            }
            None => lhs_l
                .strided_index()
                .zip(rhs_l.strided_index())
                .map(|(lhs_i, rhs_i)| f(lhs[lhs_i], rhs[rhs_i]))
                .collect(),
        },
        _ => lhs_l
            .strided_index()
            .zip(rhs_l.strided_index())
            .map(|(lhs_i, rhs_i)| f(lhs[lhs_i], rhs[rhs_i]))
            .collect(),
    }
}

struct Affine(f64, f64);

impl Map1 for Affine {
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, vs: &[T], layout: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        let mul = T::from_f64(self.0);
        let add = T::from_f64(self.1);
        Ok(unary_map(vs, layout, |v| v * mul + add))
    }
}

struct Gather<'a> {
    ids: &'a [u32],
    ids_l: &'a Layout,
    dim: usize,
}

impl<'a> Map1 for Gather<'a> {
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, src: &[T], src_l: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        let ids = match self.ids_l.contiguous_offsets() {
            Some((a, b)) => &self.ids[a..b],
            None => Err(Error::RequiresContiguous { op: "gather" })?,
        };
        let src = match src_l.contiguous_offsets() {
            Some((a, b)) => &src[a..b],
            None => Err(Error::RequiresContiguous { op: "gather" })?,
        };
        let dim = self.dim;
        let ids_dims = self.ids_l.dims();
        let src_dims = src_l.dims();
        let dst_len: usize = ids_dims.iter().product();
        let dst_left_len: usize = ids_dims[..dim].iter().product();
        let dst_dim_len = ids_dims[dim];
        let dst_right_len: usize = ids_dims[dim + 1..].iter().product();

        let src_dim_len = src_dims[dim];
        let src_right_len: usize = src_dims[dim + 1..].iter().product();

        let mut dst = vec![T::zero(); dst_len];
        for left_i in 0..dst_left_len {
            let start_src_idx = left_i * src_right_len * src_dim_len;
            let start_dst_idx = left_i * dst_right_len * dst_dim_len;
            for i in 0..dst_dim_len {
                let start_dst_idx = start_dst_idx + i * dst_right_len;
                for right_i in 0..dst_right_len {
                    let dst_idx = start_dst_idx + right_i;
                    let index = ids[dst_idx] as usize;
                    if index >= src_dim_len {
                        Err(Error::InvalidIndex {
                            index,
                            size: src_dim_len,
                            op: "gather",
                        }
                        .bt())?
                    }
                    let src_idx = start_src_idx + index * src_right_len + right_i;
                    dst[dst_idx] = src[src_idx]
                }
            }
        }
        Ok(dst)
    }
}

struct IndexSelect<'a> {
    ids: &'a [u32],
    ids_l: &'a Layout,
    dim: usize,
}

impl<'a> Map1 for IndexSelect<'a> {
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, src: &[T], layout: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        let src = match layout.contiguous_offsets() {
            Some((a, b)) => &src[a..b],
            None => Err(Error::RequiresContiguous { op: "index-select" })?,
        };
        let dim = self.dim;
        let n_ids = match self.ids_l.dims() {
            [n_ids] => *n_ids,
            d => Err(Error::UnexpectedNumberOfDims {
                expected: 1,
                got: d.len(),
                shape: self.ids_l.shape().clone(),
            })?,
        };
        let stride_ids = self.ids_l.stride()[0];
        let mut dst_dims = layout.dims().to_vec();
        let src_dim = dst_dims[dim];
        dst_dims[dim] = n_ids;
        let dst_len: usize = dst_dims.iter().product();
        let left_len: usize = dst_dims[..dim].iter().product();
        let right_len: usize = dst_dims[dim + 1..].iter().product();
        let mut dst = vec![T::zero(); dst_len];
        for left_i in 0..left_len {
            let start_src_idx = left_i * right_len * src_dim;
            let start_dst_idx = left_i * right_len * n_ids;
            for i in 0..n_ids {
                let index = self.ids[self.ids_l.start_offset() + stride_ids * i] as usize;
                if index >= src_dim {
                    Err(Error::InvalidIndex {
                        index,
                        size: src_dim,
                        op: "index-select",
                    }
                    .bt())?
                }
                let start_src_idx = start_src_idx + index * right_len;
                let start_dst_idx = start_dst_idx + i * right_len;
                dst[start_dst_idx..start_dst_idx + right_len]
                    .copy_from_slice(&src[start_src_idx..start_src_idx + right_len])
            }
        }
        Ok(dst)
    }
}

struct ScatterAdd<'a> {
    ids: &'a [u32],
    ids_l: &'a Layout,
    dim: usize,
}

impl<'a> Map2 for ScatterAdd<'a> {
    const OP: &'static str = "scatter-add";
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, v1: &[T], l1: &Layout, src: &[T], src_l: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        let dst_len = l1.shape().elem_count();
        let mut dst = vec![T::zero(); dst_len];
        copy_strided_src_(v1, &mut dst, 0, l1);
        let src = match src_l.contiguous_offsets() {
            None => Err(Error::RequiresContiguous { op: "scatter-add" })?,
            Some((o1, o2)) => &src[o1..o2],
        };

        let dim = self.dim;
        let ids_dims = self.ids_l.dims();
        let dst_dims = l1.dims();
        let dst_dim_len = dst_dims[dim];
        let dst_right_len: usize = dst_dims[dim + 1..].iter().product();

        let ids_left_len: usize = ids_dims[..dim].iter().product();
        let ids_dim_len = ids_dims[dim];
        let ids_right_len: usize = ids_dims[dim + 1..].iter().product();

        let ids = match self.ids_l.contiguous_offsets() {
            Some((a, b)) => &self.ids[a..b],
            None => Err(Error::RequiresContiguous { op: "gather" })?,
        };
        for left_i in 0..ids_left_len {
            let start_ids_idx = left_i * ids_right_len * ids_dim_len;
            let start_dst_idx = left_i * dst_right_len * dst_dim_len;
            for i in 0..ids_dim_len {
                let start_ids_idx = start_ids_idx + i * ids_right_len;
                for right_i in 0..dst_right_len {
                    let ids_idx = start_ids_idx + right_i;
                    let index = ids[ids_idx] as usize;
                    if index >= dst_dim_len {
                        Err(Error::InvalidIndex {
                            index,
                            size: dst_dim_len,
                            op: "gather",
                        }
                        .bt())?
                    }
                    let dst_idx = start_dst_idx + index * dst_right_len + right_i;
                    dst[dst_idx] += src[ids_idx]
                }
            }
        }

        Ok(dst)
    }
}

struct IndexAdd<'a> {
    ids: &'a [u32],
    dim: usize,
}

impl<'a> Map2 for IndexAdd<'a> {
    const OP: &'static str = "index-add";
    // https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/generated/torch.Tensor.index_add_.html#torch.Tensor.index_add_
    // v1, l1 -> self
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, v1: &[T], l1: &Layout, src: &[T], src_l: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        let dst_len = l1.shape().elem_count();
        let mut dst = vec![T::zero(); dst_len];
        copy_strided_src_(v1, &mut dst, 0, l1);
        let src = match src_l.contiguous_offsets() {
            None => Err(Error::RequiresContiguous { op: "index-add" })?,
            Some((o1, o2)) => &src[o1..o2],
        };
        let dim = self.dim;
        let max_idx = l1.dims()[dim];
        let stride = src_l.stride()[dim];
        if dim == 0 {
            for (src_idx, &dst_idx) in self.ids.iter().enumerate() {
                let dst_idx = dst_idx as usize;
                if dst_idx >= max_idx {
                    Err(Error::InvalidIndex {
                        index: dst_idx,
                        op: "index-add",
                        size: max_idx,
                    })?
                }
                let src_idx = src_idx * stride;
                let dst_idx = dst_idx * stride;
                let src = &src[src_idx..src_idx + stride];
                let dst = &mut dst[dst_idx..dst_idx + stride];
                for (d, &s) in dst.iter_mut().zip(src.iter()) {
                    *d += s
                }
            }
        } else {
            let pre_dim = src_l.dims()[..dim].iter().product::<usize>();
            let post_dim = src_l.dims()[dim + 1..].iter().product::<usize>();
            for (src_idx, &dst_idx) in self.ids.iter().enumerate() {
                let dst_idx = dst_idx as usize;
                if dst_idx >= max_idx {
                    Err(Error::InvalidIndex {
                        index: dst_idx,
                        op: "index-add",
                        size: max_idx,
                    })?
                }
                for pre_i in 0..pre_dim {
                    let pre_i = pre_i * stride;
                    let pre_src_i = (pre_i + src_idx) * post_dim;
                    let pre_dst_i = (pre_i + dst_idx) * post_dim;
                    let src = &src[pre_src_i..pre_src_i + post_dim];
                    let dst = &mut dst[pre_dst_i..pre_dst_i + post_dim];
                    for (d, &s) in dst.iter_mut().zip(src.iter()) {
                        *d += s
                    }
                }
            }
        }
        Ok(dst)
    }
}

struct Embedding<'a> {
    vocab_size: usize,
    hidden_size: usize,
    ids: &'a [u32],
    ids_l: &'a Layout,
}

impl<'a> Map1 for Embedding<'a> {
    fn f<T: WithDType>(&self, vs: &[T], layout: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        // TODO: We assume that vs is contiguous here.
        let vs = &vs[layout.start_offset()..];
        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(self.ids_l.shape().elem_count() * self.hidden_size);
        // TODO: Optimize for the case where ids are contiguous.
        for index in self.ids_l.strided_index() {
            let index = self.ids[index].try_into()?;
            if index >= self.vocab_size {
                Err(Error::InvalidIndex {
                    index,
                    size: self.vocab_size,
                    op: "take",
                }
                .bt())?
            } else {
                let hidden_size = self.hidden_size;
                values.extend(&vs[hidden_size * index..hidden_size * (index + 1)]);
            }
        }
        Ok(values)
    }
}

fn copy_strided_src_<T: Copy>(src: &[T], dst: &mut [T], dst_offset: usize, src_l: &Layout) {
    match src_l.strided_blocks() {
        crate::StridedBlocks::SingleBlock { start_offset, len } => {
            let to_copy = (dst.len() - dst_offset).min(len);
            dst[dst_offset..dst_offset + to_copy]
                .copy_from_slice(&src[start_offset..start_offset + to_copy])
        }
        crate::StridedBlocks::MultipleBlocks {
            block_start_index,
            block_len: 1,
        } => {
            for (dst_index, src_index) in block_start_index.enumerate() {
                let dst_index = dst_index + dst_offset;
                if dst_index >= dst.len() {
                    break;
                }
                dst[dst_index] = src[src_index]
            }
        }
        crate::StridedBlocks::MultipleBlocks {
            block_start_index,
            block_len,
        } => {
            let mut dst_index = dst_offset;
            for src_index in block_start_index {
                let next_dst_index = dst_index + block_len;
                if dst_index >= dst.len() {
                    break;
                }
                let to_copy = usize::min(block_len, dst.len() - dst_index);
                dst[dst_index..dst_index + to_copy]
                    .copy_from_slice(&src[src_index..src_index + to_copy]);
                dst_index = next_dst_index
            }
        }
    }
}

struct Conv1D<'a>(&'a crate::conv::ParamsConv1D);

impl<'a> Map2 for Conv1D<'a> {
    const OP: &'static str = "conv1d";
    fn f<T: 'static + num_traits::NumAssign + Copy>(
        &self,
        inp: &[T],
        inp_l: &Layout,
        k: &[T],
        k_l: &Layout,
    ) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        // TODO: Optimize this (proper algorithm, simd, multithread, remove bound checks, etc).
        let p = self.0;
        let inp = &inp[inp_l.start_offset()..];
        let k = &k[k_l.start_offset()..];
        let inp_stride = inp_l.stride();
        let (inp_stride0, inp_stride) = if inp_stride.len() == 3 {
            (inp_stride[0], &inp_stride[1..])
        } else {
            (0, inp_stride) // This value never gets used anyway
        };
        let k_stride = k_l.stride();
        let k_over_2 = p.k_size / 2;
        let l_out = p.l_out();
        let dst_elems = p.c_out * l_out * p.b_size.unwrap_or(1);
        let mut dst = vec![T::zero(); dst_elems];
        // The output shape is [b_size, c_out, l_out]
        for b_idx in 0..p.b_size.unwrap_or(1) {
            let inp_idx = b_idx * inp_stride0;
            let dst_idx = b_idx * p.c_out * l_out;
            for dst_c_idx in 0..p.c_out {
                let dst_idx = dst_idx + dst_c_idx * l_out;
                for dst_l in 0..l_out {
                    let dst_idx = dst_idx + dst_l;
                    let mut d = T::zero();
                    for offset in 0..p.k_size {
                        let src_l_plus = p.stride * dst_l + offset;
                        // inp[bidx, src_c_idx, dst_l + offset - k//2] * k[dst_c_idx, src_c_idx, offset]
                        if k_over_2 <= src_l_plus && src_l_plus < k_over_2 + p.l_in {
                            let src_l = src_l_plus - k_over_2;
                            for src_c_idx in 0..p.c_in {
                                let inp_idx =
                                    inp_idx + src_c_idx * inp_stride[0] + src_l * inp_stride[1];
                                let k_idx = dst_c_idx * k_stride[0]
                                    + src_c_idx * k_stride[1]
                                    + offset * k_stride[2];
                                d += inp[inp_idx] * k[k_idx]
                            }
                        }
                    }
                    dst[dst_idx] = d
                }
            }
        }
        Ok(dst)
    }
}

struct MatMul((usize, usize, usize, usize));

impl MatMul {
    fn striding_error(&self, lhs_l: &Layout, rhs_l: &Layout, msg: &'static str) -> Error {
        Error::MatMulUnexpectedStriding(Box::new(crate::error::MatMulUnexpectedStriding {
            lhs_l: lhs_l.clone(),
            rhs_l: rhs_l.clone(),
            bmnk: self.0,
            msg,
        }))
        .bt()
    }
}

impl Map2 for MatMul {
    const OP: &'static str = "mat_mul";

    #[cfg(not(feature = "mkl"))]
    fn f<T: 'static + WithDType + num_traits::Num + Copy>(
        &self,
        lhs: &[T],
        lhs_l: &Layout,
        rhs: &[T],
        rhs_l: &Layout,
    ) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        use gemm::{gemm, Parallelism};
        let (b, m, n, k) = self.0;
        let lhs = &lhs[lhs_l.start_offset()..];
        let rhs = &rhs[rhs_l.start_offset()..];

        let lhs_stride = lhs_l.stride();
        let rhs_stride = rhs_l.stride();
        let rank = lhs_stride.len();
        let lhs_cs = lhs_stride[rank - 1];
        let lhs_rs = lhs_stride[rank - 2];

        let rhs_cs = rhs_stride[rank - 1];
        let rhs_rs = rhs_stride[rank - 2];

        let a_skip: usize = match lhs_stride[..rank - 2] {
            [s1, stride] if s1 == stride * lhs_l.dims()[1] => stride,
            [stride] => stride,
            [] => m * k,
            _ => Err(self.striding_error(lhs_l, rhs_l, "non-contiguous lhs"))?,
        };
        let b_skip: usize = match rhs_stride[..rank - 2] {
            [s1, stride] if s1 == stride * rhs_l.dims()[1] => stride,
            [stride] => stride,
            [] => n * k,
            _ => Err(self.striding_error(lhs_l, rhs_l, "non-contiguous rhs"))?,
        };
        let c_skip: usize = m * n;

        let dst_shape: Shape = (m, n).into();
        let dst_strides = dst_shape.stride_contiguous();
        let dst_rs = dst_strides[0];
        let dst_cs = dst_strides[1];

        let mut dst = vec![T::zero(); b * m * n];
        let num_threads = crate::utils::get_num_threads();
        let parallelism = if num_threads > 1 {
            Parallelism::Rayon(num_threads)
        } else {
            Parallelism::None
        };
        for step in 0..b {
            let lhs_p = &lhs[step * a_skip..];
            let rhs_p = &rhs[step * b_skip..];
            let dst_p = &mut dst[step * c_skip..];
            unsafe {
                gemm(
                    /* m: usize = */ m,
                    /* n: usize = */ n,
                    /* k: usize = */ k,
                    /* dst: *mut T = */ dst_p.as_mut_ptr(),
                    /* dst_cs: isize = */ dst_cs as isize,
                    /* dst_rs: isize = */ dst_rs as isize,
                    /* read_dst: bool = */ false,
                    /* lhs: *const T = */ lhs_p.as_ptr(),
                    /* lhs_cs: isize = */ lhs_cs as isize,
                    /* lhs_rs: isize = */ lhs_rs as isize,
                    /* rhs: *const T = */ rhs_p.as_ptr(),
                    /* rhs_cs: isize = */ rhs_cs as isize,
                    /* rhs_rs: isize = */ rhs_rs as isize,
                    /* alpha: T = */ T::zero(),
                    /* beta: T = */ T::one(),
                    /* conj_dst: bool = */ false,
                    /* conj_lhs: bool = */ false,
                    /* conj_rhs: bool = */ false,
                    parallelism,
                )
            }
        }
        Ok(dst)
    }

    #[cfg(feature = "mkl")]
    fn f<T: 'static + WithDType + num_traits::Num + Copy>(
        &self,
        lhs: &[T],
        lhs_l: &Layout,
        rhs: &[T],
        rhs_l: &Layout,
    ) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        let (b, m, n, k) = self.0;
        let lhs = &lhs[lhs_l.start_offset()..];
        let rhs = &rhs[rhs_l.start_offset()..];

        let lhs_stride = lhs_l.stride();
        let rhs_stride = rhs_l.stride();
        let rank = lhs_stride.len();

        let a_skip: usize = match lhs_stride[..rank - 2] {
            [s1, stride] if s1 == stride * lhs_l.dims()[1] => stride,
            [stride] => stride,
            [] => m * k,
            _ => Err(self.striding_error(lhs_l, rhs_l, "non-contiguous lhs"))?,
        };
        let b_skip: usize = match rhs_stride[..rank - 2] {
            [s1, stride] if s1 == stride * rhs_l.dims()[1] => stride,
            [stride] => stride,
            [] => n * k,
            _ => Err(self.striding_error(lhs_l, rhs_l, "non-contiguous rhs"))?,
        };
        let c_skip: usize = m * n;

        let rhs_m1 = rhs_stride[rhs_stride.len() - 1];
        let rhs_m2 = rhs_stride[rhs_stride.len() - 2];
        let lhs_m1 = lhs_stride[lhs_stride.len() - 1];
        let lhs_m2 = lhs_stride[lhs_stride.len() - 2];

        let (lda, transa) = if rhs_m1 == 1 && rhs_m2 == n {
            (n as i32, b'N')
        } else if rhs_m1 == k && rhs_m2 == 1 {
            (k as i32, b'T')
        } else {
            Err(self.striding_error(lhs_l, rhs_l, "non-contiguous rhs"))?
        };
        // The b tensor has dims batching, m, k (lhs)
        let (ldb, transb) = if lhs_m1 == 1 && lhs_m2 == k {
            (k as i32, b'N')
        } else if lhs_m1 == m && lhs_m2 == 1 {
            (m as i32, b'T')
        } else {
            Err(self.striding_error(lhs_l, rhs_l, "non-contiguous lhs"))?
        };

        let mut dst = vec![T::zero(); b * m * n];
        match T::DTYPE {
            DType::F16 => {
                for step in 0..b {
                    let lhs_p = &lhs[step * a_skip..];
                    let rhs_p = &rhs[step * b_skip..];
                    let dst_p = &mut dst[step * c_skip..];
                    unsafe {
                        let a = rhs_p.as_ptr() as *const f16;
                        let b = lhs_p.as_ptr() as *const f16;
                        let c = dst_p.as_mut_ptr() as *mut f16;
                        let a = std::slice::from_raw_parts(a, a_skip);
                        let b = std::slice::from_raw_parts(b, b_skip);
                        let c = std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(c, c_skip);
                        crate::mkl::hgemm(
                            transa,
                            transb,
                            /* m= */ n as i32,
                            /* n= */ m as i32,
                            /* k= */ k as i32,
                            /* alpha= */ f16::ONE,
                            /* a= */ a,
                            /* lda= */ lda,
                            /* b= */ b,
                            /* ldb= */ ldb,
                            /* beta= */ f16::ZERO,
                            /* c= */ c,
                            /* ldc= */ n as i32,
                        )
                    }
                }
            }
            DType::F32 => {
                for step in 0..b {
                    let lhs_p = &lhs[step * a_skip..];
                    let rhs_p = &rhs[step * b_skip..];
                    let dst_p = &mut dst[step * c_skip..];
                    unsafe {
                        let a = rhs_p.as_ptr() as *const f32;
                        let b = lhs_p.as_ptr() as *const f32;
                        let c = dst_p.as_mut_ptr() as *mut f32;
                        let a = std::slice::from_raw_parts(a, a_skip);
                        let b = std::slice::from_raw_parts(b, b_skip);
                        let c = std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(c, c_skip);
                        crate::mkl::sgemm(
                            transa, transb, /* m= */ n as i32, /* n= */ m as i32,
                            /* k= */ k as i32, /* alpha= */ 1., /* a= */ a,
                            /* lda= */ lda, /* b= */ b, /* ldb= */ ldb,
                            /* beta= */ 0., /* c= */ c, /* ldc= */ n as i32,
                        )
                    }
                }
            }
            DType::F64 => {
                for step in 0..b {
                    let lhs_p = &lhs[step * a_skip..];
                    let rhs_p = &rhs[step * b_skip..];
                    let dst_p = &mut dst[step * c_skip..];
                    unsafe {
                        let a = rhs_p.as_ptr() as *const f64;
                        let b = lhs_p.as_ptr() as *const f64;
                        let c = dst_p.as_mut_ptr() as *mut f64;
                        let a = std::slice::from_raw_parts(a, a_skip);
                        let b = std::slice::from_raw_parts(b, b_skip);
                        let c = std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(c, c_skip);
                        crate::mkl::dgemm(
                            transa, transb, /* m= */ n as i32, /* n= */ m as i32,
                            /* k= */ k as i32, /* alpha= */ 1., /* a= */ a,
                            /* lda= */ lda, /* b= */ b, /* ldb= */ ldb,
                            /* beta= */ 0., /* c= */ c, /* ldc= */ n as i32,
                        )
                    }
                }
            }
            dtype => Err(Error::UnsupportedDTypeForOp(dtype, "matmul").bt())?,
        }
        Ok(dst)
    }
}

fn divide_by_sum_over_dim<T: WithDType>(s: &mut [T], shape: &Shape, dim: usize) -> Result<()> {
    // [self] stores data in a contiguous way starting at offset 0.
    let dims = shape.dims();
    let elem_per_slice = dims[dim];
    let prod_pre_dim = dims[..dim].iter().product();
    let prod_post_dim = dims[dim + 1..].iter().product();
    if prod_post_dim == 1 {
        for pre_idx in 0..prod_pre_dim {
            let mut sum = 0f64;
            let idx = pre_idx * elem_per_slice;
            for v in s[idx..idx + elem_per_slice].iter() {
                sum += v.to_f64();
            }
            let sum = T::from_f64(sum);
            for v in s[idx..idx + elem_per_slice].iter_mut() {
                *v /= sum
            }
        }
    } else {
        for pre_idx in 0..prod_pre_dim {
            for post_idx in 0..prod_post_dim {
                let mut sum = 0f64;
                let mut idx = pre_idx * prod_post_dim * elem_per_slice + post_idx;
                for _ in 0..elem_per_slice {
                    sum += s[idx].to_f64();
                    idx += prod_post_dim
                }
                let sum = T::from_f64(sum);
                let mut idx = pre_idx * prod_post_dim * elem_per_slice + post_idx;
                for _ in 0..elem_per_slice {
                    s[idx] /= sum;
                    idx += prod_post_dim
                }
            }
        }
    }
    Ok(())
}

fn elu<T: num_traits::Float>(v: T, alpha: T) -> T {
    if v.is_sign_positive() {
        v
    } else {
        (v.exp() - T::one()) * alpha
    }
}

impl CpuStorage {
    pub fn as_slice<D: WithDType>(&self) -> Result<&[D]> {
        D::cpu_storage_as_slice(self)
    }
}

impl BackendStorage for CpuStorage {
    type Device = CpuDevice;

    fn dtype(&self) -> DType {
        match self {
            Self::U8(_) => DType::U8,
            Self::U32(_) => DType::U32,
            Self::BF16(_) => DType::BF16,
            Self::F16(_) => DType::F16,
            Self::F32(_) => DType::F32,
            Self::F64(_) => DType::F64,
        }
    }

    fn to_dtype(&self, layout: &Layout, dtype: DType) -> Result<Self> {
        // TODO: find a way around the quadratic number of cases below.
        match (self, dtype) {
            (Self::U8(storage), DType::BF16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| bf16::from_f32(v as f32));
                Ok(Self::BF16(data))
            }
            (Self::U32(storage), DType::BF16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| bf16::from_f32(v as f32));
                Ok(Self::BF16(data))
            }
            (Self::BF16(storage), DType::BF16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v);
                Ok(Self::BF16(data))
            }
            (Self::F16(storage), DType::BF16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| bf16::from_f32(v.to_f32()));
                Ok(Self::BF16(data))
            }
            (Self::F32(storage), DType::BF16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, bf16::from_f32);
                Ok(Self::BF16(data))
            }
            (Self::F64(storage), DType::BF16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, bf16::from_f64);
                Ok(Self::BF16(data))
            }
            (Self::U8(storage), DType::F16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| f16::from_f32(v as f32));
                Ok(Self::F16(data))
            }
            (Self::U32(storage), DType::F16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| f16::from_f32(v as f32));
                Ok(Self::F16(data))
            }
            (Self::BF16(storage), DType::F16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| f16::from_f32(v.to_f32()));
                Ok(Self::F16(data))
            }
            (Self::F16(storage), DType::F16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v);
                Ok(Self::F16(data))
            }
            (Self::F32(storage), DType::F16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, f16::from_f32);
                Ok(Self::F16(data))
            }
            (Self::F64(storage), DType::F16) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, f16::from_f64);
                Ok(Self::F16(data))
            }
            (Self::U8(storage), DType::F32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as f32);
                Ok(Self::F32(data))
            }
            (Self::U32(storage), DType::F32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as f32);
                Ok(Self::F32(data))
            }
            (Self::BF16(storage), DType::F32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v.to_f32());
                Ok(Self::F32(data))
            }
            (Self::F16(storage), DType::F32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v.to_f32());
                Ok(Self::F32(data))
            }
            (Self::F32(storage), DType::F32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v);
                Ok(Self::F32(data))
            }
            (Self::F64(storage), DType::F32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as f32);
                Ok(Self::F32(data))
            }
            (Self::U8(storage), DType::U8) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v);
                Ok(Self::U8(data))
            }
            (Self::BF16(storage), DType::U8) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v.to_f32() as u8);
                Ok(Self::U8(data))
            }
            (Self::F16(storage), DType::U8) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v.to_f32() as u8);
                Ok(Self::U8(data))
            }
            (Self::F32(storage), DType::U8) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as u8);
                Ok(Self::U8(data))
            }
            (Self::F64(storage), DType::U8) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as u8);
                Ok(Self::U8(data))
            }
            (Self::U8(storage), DType::U32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as u32);
                Ok(Self::U32(data))
            }
            (Self::U32(storage), DType::U8) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as u8);
                Ok(Self::U8(data))
            }
            (Self::U32(storage), DType::U32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v);
                Ok(Self::U32(data))
            }
            (Self::BF16(storage), DType::U32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v.to_f32() as u32);
                Ok(Self::U32(data))
            }
            (Self::F16(storage), DType::U32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v.to_f32() as u32);
                Ok(Self::U32(data))
            }
            (Self::F32(storage), DType::U32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as u32);
                Ok(Self::U32(data))
            }
            (Self::F64(storage), DType::U32) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as u32);
                Ok(Self::U32(data))
            }
            (Self::U8(storage), DType::F64) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as f64);
                Ok(Self::F64(data))
            }
            (Self::U32(storage), DType::F64) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as f64);
                Ok(Self::F64(data))
            }
            (Self::BF16(storage), DType::F64) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v.to_f64());
                Ok(Self::F64(data))
            }
            (Self::F16(storage), DType::F64) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v.to_f64());
                Ok(Self::F64(data))
            }
            (Self::F32(storage), DType::F64) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v as f64);
                Ok(Self::F64(data))
            }
            (Self::F64(storage), DType::F64) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| v);
                Ok(Self::F64(data))
            }
        }
    }

    fn reduce_op(&self, op: ReduceOp, layout: &Layout, reduce_dims: &[usize]) -> Result<Self> {
        match op {
            ReduceOp::Sum => {
                let src_dims = layout.dims();
                let mut dst_dims = src_dims.to_vec();
                for &dim in reduce_dims.iter() {
                    dst_dims[dim] = 1;
                }
                let dst_shape = Shape::from(dst_dims);
                let mut reduce_dims = reduce_dims.to_vec();
                // Sort the reduce_dims as they have to be processed from left to right when converting the
                // indexes.
                reduce_dims.sort();
                let reduce_dims_and_stride: Vec<_> = reduce_dims
                    .iter()
                    .map(|&d| (src_dims[d], src_dims[d + 1..].iter().product::<usize>()))
                    .collect();
                Reduce {
                    dst_shape: &dst_shape,
                    reduce_dims: &reduce_dims,
                    reduce_dims_and_stride,
                }
                .map(self, layout)
            }
            ReduceOp::Min | ReduceOp::ArgMin | ReduceOp::Max | ReduceOp::ArgMax => {
                let reduce_dim_index = match reduce_dims {
                    [reduce_dim_index] => *reduce_dim_index,
                    _ => {
                        let op = match op {
                            ReduceOp::Min => "min",
                            ReduceOp::ArgMin => "argmin",
                            ReduceOp::Max => "max",
                            ReduceOp::ArgMax => "argmax",
                            _ => unreachable!(),
                        };
                        let dims = reduce_dims.to_vec();
                        Err(Error::OnlySingleDimension { op, dims })?
                    }
                };
                let (use_min, return_index) = match op {
                    ReduceOp::Min => (true, false),
                    ReduceOp::ArgMin => (true, true),
                    ReduceOp::Max => (false, false),
                    ReduceOp::ArgMax => (false, true),
                    _ => unreachable!(),
                };
                ReduceIndex {
                    reduce_dim_index,
                    use_min,
                    return_index,
                }
                .map(self, layout)
            }
        }
    }

    fn cmp(&self, op: CmpOp, rhs: &Self, lhs_l: &Layout, rhs_l: &Layout) -> Result<Self> {
        Cmp(op).map(self, lhs_l, rhs, rhs_l)
    }

    fn divide_by_sum_over_dim(&mut self, shape: &Shape, dim: usize) -> Result<()> {
        // [self] stores data in a contiguous way starting at offset 0.
        match self {
            Self::BF16(s) => divide_by_sum_over_dim(s, shape, dim),
            Self::F16(s) => divide_by_sum_over_dim(s, shape, dim),
            Self::F32(s) => divide_by_sum_over_dim(s, shape, dim),
            Self::F64(s) => divide_by_sum_over_dim(s, shape, dim),
            Self::U8(_) | Self::U32(_) => Ok(()),
        }
    }

    fn affine(&self, layout: &Layout, mul: f64, add: f64) -> Result<Self> {
        Affine(mul, add).map(self, layout)
    }

    fn elu(&self, layout: &Layout, alpha: f64) -> Result<Self> {
        // TODO: Have some generic map for functions that apply on num_traits::Float elements.
        match self {
            Self::BF16(storage) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| elu(v, bf16::from_f64(alpha)));
                Ok(Self::BF16(data))
            }
            Self::F16(storage) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| elu(v, f16::from_f64(alpha)));
                Ok(Self::F16(data))
            }
            Self::F32(storage) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| elu(v, f32::from_f64(alpha)));
                Ok(Self::F32(data))
            }
            Self::F64(storage) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, |v| elu(v, alpha));
                Ok(Self::F64(data))
            }
            Self::U8(_) => Err(Error::UnsupportedDTypeForOp(DType::U8, "elu").bt()),
            Self::U32(_) => Err(Error::UnsupportedDTypeForOp(DType::U32, "elu").bt()),
        }
    }

    fn unary_impl<B: UnaryOpT>(&self, layout: &Layout) -> Result<Self> {
        match self {
            Self::BF16(storage) => {
                if B::BF16_VEC {
                    let data = unary_map_vec(storage, layout, B::bf16, B::bf16_vec);
                    Ok(Self::BF16(data))
                } else {
                    let data = unary_map(storage, layout, B::bf16);
                    Ok(Self::BF16(data))
                }
            }
            Self::F16(storage) => {
                if B::F16_VEC {
                    let data = unary_map_vec(storage, layout, B::f16, B::f16_vec);
                    Ok(Self::F16(data))
                } else {
                    let data = unary_map(storage, layout, B::f16);
                    Ok(Self::F16(data))
                }
            }
            Self::F32(storage) => {
                if B::F32_VEC {
                    let data = unary_map_vec(storage, layout, B::f32, B::f32_vec);
                    Ok(Self::F32(data))
                } else {
                    let data = unary_map(storage, layout, B::f32);
                    Ok(Self::F32(data))
                }
            }
            Self::F64(storage) => {
                if B::F64_VEC {
                    let data = unary_map_vec(storage, layout, B::f64, B::f64_vec);
                    Ok(Self::F64(data))
                } else {
                    let data = unary_map(storage, layout, B::f64);
                    Ok(Self::F64(data))
                }
            }
            Self::U8(storage) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, B::u8);
                Ok(Self::U8(data))
            }
            Self::U32(storage) => {
                let data = unary_map(storage, layout, B::u32);
                Ok(Self::U32(data))
            }
        }
    }

    fn binary_impl<B: BinaryOpT>(
        &self,
        rhs: &Self,
        lhs_l: &Layout,
        rhs_l: &Layout,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        match (self, rhs) {
            (Self::BF16(lhs), Self::BF16(rhs)) => {
                let data = if B::BF16_VEC {
                    binary_map_vec(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::bf16, B::bf16_vec)
                } else {
                    binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::bf16)
                };
                Ok(Self::BF16(data))
            }
            (Self::F16(lhs), Self::F16(rhs)) => {
                let data = if B::F16_VEC {
                    binary_map_vec(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::f16, B::f16_vec)
                } else {
                    binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::f16)
                };
                Ok(Self::F16(data))
            }
            (Self::F32(lhs), Self::F32(rhs)) => {
                let data = if B::F32_VEC {
                    binary_map_vec(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::f32, B::f32_vec)
                } else {
                    binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::f32)
                };
                Ok(Self::F32(data))
            }
            (Self::F64(lhs), Self::F64(rhs)) => {
                let data = if B::F64_VEC {
                    binary_map_vec(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::f64, B::f64_vec)
                } else {
                    binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::f64)
                };
                Ok(Self::F64(data))
            }
            (Self::U32(lhs), Self::U32(rhs)) => {
                let data = if B::U32_VEC {
                    binary_map_vec(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::u32, B::u32_vec)
                } else {
                    binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::u32)
                };
                Ok(Self::U32(data))
            }
            (Self::U8(lhs), Self::U8(rhs)) => {
                let data = if B::U8_VEC {
                    binary_map_vec(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::u8, B::u8_vec)
                } else {
                    binary_map(lhs_l, rhs_l, lhs, rhs, B::u8)
                };
                Ok(Self::U8(data))
            }
            _ => {
                // This should be covered by the dtype check above.
                Err(Error::DTypeMismatchBinaryOp {
                    lhs: self.dtype(),
                    rhs: rhs.dtype(),
                    op: B::NAME,
                }
                .bt())
            }
        }
    }

    fn copy_strided_src(&self, dst: &mut Self, dst_offset: usize, src_l: &Layout) -> Result<()> {
        match (self, dst) {
            (Self::U8(src), Self::U8(dst)) => copy_strided_src_(src, dst, dst_offset, src_l),
            (Self::U32(src), Self::U32(dst)) => copy_strided_src_(src, dst, dst_offset, src_l),
            (Self::BF16(src), Self::BF16(dst)) => copy_strided_src_(src, dst, dst_offset, src_l),
            (Self::F16(src), Self::F16(dst)) => copy_strided_src_(src, dst, dst_offset, src_l),
            (Self::F32(src), Self::F32(dst)) => copy_strided_src_(src, dst, dst_offset, src_l),
            (Self::F64(src), Self::F64(dst)) => copy_strided_src_(src, dst, dst_offset, src_l),
            (_, dst) => {
                // This should be covered by the dtype check above.
                return Err(Error::DTypeMismatchBinaryOp {
                    lhs: self.dtype(),
                    rhs: dst.dtype(),
                    op: "copy_strided",
                }
                .bt());
            }
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    fn where_cond(
        &self,
        layout: &Layout,
        t: &Self,
        t_l: &Layout,
        f: &Self,
        f_l: &Layout,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        // TODO: Support types that could be casted to a boolean.
        let pred = self.as_slice::<u32>()?;
        WCond(pred, layout).map(t, t_l, f, f_l)
    }

    fn conv1d(
        &self,
        l: &Layout,
        kernel: &Self,
        kernel_l: &Layout,
        params: &crate::conv::ParamsConv1D,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        Conv1D(params).map(self, l, kernel, kernel_l)
    }

    fn embedding(&self, ids_l: &Layout, rhs: &Self, rhs_l: &Layout) -> Result<Self> {
        let ids = self.as_slice::<u32>()?;
        let (vocab_size, hidden_size) = rhs_l.shape().r2()?;
        Embedding {
            vocab_size,
            hidden_size,
            ids,
            ids_l,
        }
        .map(rhs, rhs_l)
    }

    fn index_select(&self, ids: &Self, l: &Layout, ids_l: &Layout, dim: usize) -> Result<Self> {
        let ids = ids.as_slice::<u32>()?;
        IndexSelect { ids, ids_l, dim }.map(self, l)
    }

    fn gather(&self, l: &Layout, ids: &Self, ids_l: &Layout, dim: usize) -> Result<Self> {
        let ids = ids.as_slice::<u32>()?;
        Gather { ids, ids_l, dim }.map(self, l)
    }

    fn scatter_add(
        &self,
        l: &Layout,
        ids: &Self,
        ids_l: &Layout,
        src: &Self,
        src_l: &Layout,
        dim: usize,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        let ids = ids.as_slice::<u32>()?;
        ScatterAdd { ids, ids_l, dim }.map(self, l, src, src_l)
    }

    fn index_add(
        &self,
        l: &Layout,
        ids: &Self,
        ids_l: &Layout,
        src: &Self,
        src_l: &Layout,
        dim: usize,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        let ids = ids.as_slice::<u32>()?;
        let ids = match ids_l.contiguous_offsets() {
            Some((a, b)) => &ids[a..b],
            None => Err(Error::RequiresContiguous { op: "index-add" })?,
        };
        IndexAdd { ids, dim }.map(self, l, src, src_l)
    }

    fn matmul(
        &self,
        rhs: &Self,
        bmnk: (usize, usize, usize, usize),
        lhs_l: &Layout,
        rhs_l: &Layout,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        MatMul(bmnk).map(self, lhs_l, rhs, rhs_l)
    }

    fn device(&self) -> &Self::Device {
        &CpuDevice
    }

    fn try_clone(&self, _: &Layout) -> Result<Self> {
        Ok(self.clone())
    }

    fn to_cpu_storage(&self) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        Ok(self.clone())
    }
}

impl BackendDevice for CpuDevice {
    type Storage = CpuStorage;

    fn location(&self) -> crate::DeviceLocation {
        crate::DeviceLocation::Cpu
    }

    fn same_device(&self, _: &Self) -> bool {
        true
    }

    fn storage_from_cpu_storage(&self, s: &CpuStorage) -> Result<Self::Storage> {
        Ok(s.clone())
    }

    fn new(_: usize) -> Result<Self> {
        Ok(Self)
    }

    fn rand_uniform(&self, shape: &Shape, dtype: DType, min: f64, max: f64) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        use rand::prelude::*;

        let elem_count = shape.elem_count();
        let mut rng = rand::thread_rng();
        match dtype {
            DType::U8 | DType::U32 | DType::BF16 | DType::F16 => {
                Err(Error::UnsupportedDTypeForOp(dtype, "rand_normal").bt())
            }
            DType::F32 => {
                let mut data = Vec::new();
                data.reserve(elem_count);
                let uniform = rand::distributions::Uniform::new(min as f32, max as f32);
                for _i in 0..elem_count {
                    data.push(rng.sample::<f32, _>(uniform))
                }
                Ok(CpuStorage::F32(data))
            }
            DType::F64 => {
                let mut data = Vec::new();
                data.reserve(elem_count);
                let uniform = rand::distributions::Uniform::new(min, max);
                for _i in 0..elem_count {
                    data.push(rng.sample::<f64, _>(uniform))
                }
                Ok(CpuStorage::F64(data))
            }
        }
    }

    fn rand_normal(&self, shape: &Shape, dtype: DType, mean: f64, std: f64) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        use rand::prelude::*;

        let elem_count = shape.elem_count();
        let mut rng = rand::thread_rng();
        match dtype {
            DType::U8 | DType::U32 | DType::BF16 | DType::F16 => {
                Err(Error::UnsupportedDTypeForOp(dtype, "rand_normal").bt())
            }
            DType::F32 => {
                let mut data = Vec::new();
                data.reserve(elem_count);
                let std = std as f32;
                let mean = mean as f32;
                for _i in 0..elem_count {
                    data.push(rng.sample::<f32, _>(rand::distributions::Standard) * std + mean)
                }
                Ok(CpuStorage::F32(data))
            }
            DType::F64 => {
                let mut data = Vec::new();
                data.reserve(elem_count);
                for _i in 0..elem_count {
                    data.push(rng.sample::<f64, _>(rand::distributions::Standard) * std + mean)
                }
                Ok(CpuStorage::F64(data))
            }
        }
    }

    fn ones_impl(&self, shape: &Shape, dtype: DType) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        let elem_count = shape.elem_count();
        let storage = match dtype {
            DType::U8 => CpuStorage::U8(vec![1u8; elem_count]),
            DType::U32 => CpuStorage::U32(vec![1u32; elem_count]),
            DType::BF16 => CpuStorage::BF16(vec![bf16::ONE; elem_count]),
            DType::F16 => CpuStorage::F16(vec![f16::ONE; elem_count]),
            DType::F32 => CpuStorage::F32(vec![1f32; elem_count]),
            DType::F64 => CpuStorage::F64(vec![1f64; elem_count]),
        };
        Ok(storage)
    }

    fn zeros_impl(&self, shape: &Shape, dtype: DType) -> Result<CpuStorage> {
        let elem_count = shape.elem_count();
        let storage = match dtype {
            DType::U8 => CpuStorage::U8(vec![0u8; elem_count]),
            DType::U32 => CpuStorage::U32(vec![0u32; elem_count]),
            DType::BF16 => CpuStorage::BF16(vec![bf16::ZERO; elem_count]),
            DType::F16 => CpuStorage::F16(vec![f16::ZERO; elem_count]),
            DType::F32 => CpuStorage::F32(vec![0f32; elem_count]),
            DType::F64 => CpuStorage::F64(vec![0f64; elem_count]),
        };
        Ok(storage)
    }
}

#[macro_export]
macro_rules! map_dtype {
    ($name:expr, $storage:ident, $fn:expr, ($($dtypes:ident),+)) => {
        match $storage {
            $(CpuStorage::$dtypes(__e) => CpuStorage::$dtypes($fn(__e)),)*
            s => Err(Error::UnsupportedDTypeForOp(s.dtype(), $name).bt())?,
        }
    };
}